Language learning glossary

CEFR — the common European scale A1–C2. A1 beginner, A2 survival, B1 intermediate, B2 independent, C1 proficient, C2 near-native.

Receptive — reading and listening (input). Productive — speaking and writing (output). Input hypothesis (Krashen) — language is acquired through comprehensible input slightly above level (i+1).

Spaced repetition — interval reviews (Anki). Shadowing — echoing a native speaker aloud. Immersion — surrounding yourself with the language. Extensive reading — reading for pleasure without a dictionary.

IELTS/TOEFL — English for admission/work. TestDaF/Goethe — German. DELF/DALF — French. DELE — Spanish. CILS — Italian. Duolingo English Test — online, cheaper.

Native speaker. L1 — first language, L2 — second. Interference — L1 influence on L2 (transfer errors). Phoneme — minimal sound unit. False friends — look-alike words with different meanings.

Anki — spaced-repetition flashcards. Corpus — a collection of real texts. Graded readers — books simplified by level. Language exchange — tandem practice with a partner.