Purification & distillation

Separating liquids by boiling point: vaporize → condense. Water boils at 100°C, ethanol at 78.4°C, most impurities above or below.

For cars, irons, analysis: boil + collect condensate. Mineral content ~0. A TDS meter shows <10 ppm vs 200–400 tap.

Filtration — mechanical impurities. Settling — heavy particles. Recrystallization — solids. Distillation — when the impurity is non-volatile or boils differently.

Ethanol-water distills to max 95.6% — further needs a desiccant (zeolite, anhydrous sulfate). An azeotrope is the limit of simple distillation.

Solvent vapors — ventilation, no open flame. Never distill in a sealed system — pressure explosion. Methanol is toxic — early fractions are dangerous.

Distilling drinking alcohol is licensed activity; moonshine carries administrative liability in many countries. Water and technical fluids — unrestricted.