Planting density

Spacing depends on species and goal: conifers 2.5–3 m rows, 0.8–1 m in-row; oak sparser — 3×1.5; walnut and paulownia wide — 4–5 m. Keep 10–15% spare seedlings for first-year replacement (5–15% loss is normal). Denser planting = straighter trunks but earlier thinning. For windbreaks — 2–3 rows at 1.5–2 m.